The Theater Duke

This summer, Prof. Rudolf Denk's cultural tour* took his followers to Gotha and included two theater performances. The first stop on the trip was Meiningen, where in 1866, Duke Georg II took over the artistic direction of his court theater after ascending to the throne of Saxe-Meiningen.
*These tours are always a highlight

Georg's primary interest was in theater, especially the plays of Shakespeare, Schiller, Kleist, Molière, Goethe, and Lessing. He was dissatisfied with the performances of these plays on German stages at the time, which were not authentic. The duke sought to reform this practice since he combined his love of theater with a great artistic talent. He also had the necessary financial and political resources to bring his ideas to life, thanks to the help of a talented theater ensemble. 

He himself designed historically accurate costumes, stage sets, and props, and followed his artistic ideal of presenting theater in a historically accurate, stylish, and simply perfect manner. This included absolute fidelity to the original text and the formation of an ensemble. Georg's activities were initially ridiculed, but his successes caught the attention of the theater world, and he was soon referred to, sometimes appreciatively, sometimes mockingly, as the "Theater Duke."

The success gave rise to the idea of a guest performance in Berlin, where on May 1, 1874, the ensemble of the Meiningen Court Theater performed Shakespeare's Julius Caesar.

Wikipedia notes: This was followed by an unprecedented 16-year tour, featuring 81 guest performances in 38 European cities, including London, Vienna, Stockholm, Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and Amsterdam, with a total of 2,591 performances. Soon, the newspapers and the theater world referred to the court theater ensemble simply as "the Meiningers."

 

The Meiningers in St. Petersburg (©Wikipedia)

On their travels, the Meiningers took not only the costumes with them but also the complete stage sets, featuring "historically accurate" designs, which created an almost perfect illusion of reality on stage.

These historic stage sets are on display at Meiningen in the theater museum "Zauberwelt der Kulisse (Magic World of the Stage)."

Wallenstein's camp outside the city of Pilsen

Here, our museum guide explains the historic stage set of Friedrich Schillers Wallensteins Lager (Wallenstein's Camp).

In the evening

During the night

The upcoming morning

Theater was extremely popular. 
The wealthy residents of Neustadt paid eight guilders for a box seat,
while those less well-off paid 20 kreuzers for standing in the third upper circle.

The stage set served at the municipal theater in Wiener Neustadt on September 21, 1883.

The Meininger next played Vienna at the Carltheater on October 13, 1883.

Here is the master in a 19th-century bronze plaster copy by Johann Heinrich Dannheisser.

Here are two more stage sets that hang on the side walls of the auditorium.

Landscape on the Nile based on an original design by George II for the play "Das verschleierte Bild zu Sais (The Veiled Picture at Sais)" by Paul Heyse.

Stage set by Werner Tübkefor Carl-Maria von Weber's opera Der Freischütz at the Theater Bonn in 1993.

When I got on the bus to leave for Gotha, I noticed a sticker. How kind of our driver to transport people like me who depend on a cane.

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Nicht nur "Uffrur"

Translated to "Not only upheaval," i.e., the Alemannisches Institut in Freiburg had not only organized a day trip to the exhibition "Uffrur" devoted to the Peasants' War of 1525 at Kloster Schussenried, but on the way, our group made a stop at Meßkirch.

Again, this was not for Martin Heidegger, who was born in Meßkirch, but for a visit to the local castle. It is the first regular four-winged castle north of the Alps in the Renaissance style.

The castle square with the church

The east front of the castle

The castle courtyard: "It was the chestnut and not the linden."

A line of sight from the castle courtyard to the entrance of the church

The missing north wing

In 1566, all four corner towers and three of the wings had been built, while the old building, known as the "Schlössle," remained as the fourth wing in the north.

The Meßkirch castle contains the oldest Renaissance banquet hall in Germany, measuring 30 × 9.60 meters, with its original cantilevered wooden coffered ceiling.

Schussenried Monastery is a former imperial abbey located in Upper Swabia in the town of the same name.

The Premonstratensian canons lived there from 1183 until the Napoleonic secularization in 1803.

Once we arrived at Schussenried, we first stopped for lunch at the Gasthaus zum Klosterhof, i.e., at the "inn inside the monastery courtyard," which is located outside the former monastery.

From there, it was not far to the convent building.

On the way, we noticed St. Magnus Church, which now serves as the Catholic parish church.

The premises of the former monastery are now used as event and exhibition spaces.

Folks were eagerly streaming in, but neither the lansquenet
nor did the peasant control the flow of people.

The word of God remains forever.

The rainbow banner of the rebellious peasants. This is the sign of the covenant (Genesis 1,12).

And still there was more to see, because our group first visited the former baroque library of the monastery.

Today, you won't find any books, because they were all sold at a profit during the secularization period. It is now all painted canvas.

The highlight of the library is the painted ceiling with Christian and mythological depictions. For example, Aeneas, with his head raised high and holding his son Ascanius by the hand, carries his father Anchises on his shoulders, leading his family and companions out of the burning city of Troy.

Discover more well-known scenes.

I was rather impressed by four groups of plaster figures, two of which were facing each other. At first, I assumed that the tall statues holding writings in their hands were the four apostles. Far from it, they are preachers addressing four human sins.

One preacher scolds those who indulge in alcohol.

He preaches against gluttony.

Unbelief or the misinterpretation of the Scripture are offenses that this preacher vigorously refutes.

And for him, it is entirely unacceptable when unbelievers (Turks?) play with the dove of the Trinity. The preacher's expression is one of horror.

After visiting the library, we took the long staircase to our actual destination. I have written about the Peasants' War on various occasions in blogs, for example, here and here. I will just present some exceptional exhibits below.

The map shows the full extent of the unrest, which stretched from Stühlinger in the southwest to Thuringia in the north. When I asked why Bavarian territories were not affected by the peasant uprisings, I received unconvincing answers.

Most peasants felt burdened and weighed down, like this one. It is a sculpture from the town hall in Überlingen, where peasants from the manorial estate had to pay their taxes in either money or goods in kind. Now, in April 1524, the farmers on the Upper Rhine no longer tolerated their grievances.

Dream vision. Watercolor from the Albrecht Dürer art book, Nuremberg, June 1525

In July 1525, the battles of the Peasants' War were threateningly close to the city of Nuremberg when Dürer had a nightmare about a flood. On the night of June 8, he had a dream in which the landscape around him was utterly devastated by falling masses of water. He added a detailed description to his picture.

St. Wendelin, Upper Swabian workshop, Wurzach 1520

An ideal world in which St. Wendelin, the patron saint of farmers and shepherds, is depicted. His neat, peasant clothing, beard, and hairstyle contrast with the poor lives of his admirers.

Hans Herlin, St. Ursula and her companions.
Colored lime wood, Memmingen, around 1510

At the center of the occupants of the small boat stands the crowned St. Ursula, who was murdered by Huns on her way to Cologne together with 11,000 of her virgin companions. Pope Siricius and a bishop, adorned with the tiara and bishop's miter, and dressed in magnificent golden robes, sit in the boat. What a contrast to the serfs!

 

From an Augsburg workshop,
Madonna of the Protective Cloak in a Field of Wheat, stained glass, around 1520

Here we see the difference in social status again. The Virgin Mary spreads her cloak protectively over humanity. On the right, the privileged side, stands the clergy led by the pope; opposite them are the emperor, nobles, citizens, and peasants.

Iron, oak wood. Southern Germany, late 15th century.

Hakenbüchse (hook gun). A hook like this on the underside of such guns cushioned the recoil somewhat. About one in five farmers owned a hook gun.

Woodcut by Erhard Schön, 1525

The leaflet notes that peasants burned and looted a total of 72 monasteries and castles before April 1525. The Black Forest alone accounted for 46 of these, including Schussenried.

Stained glass, Constance 1528-1550

A few towns had supported the rebels, but Überlingen sided with the lords. As a reward, Emperor Charles V allowed the imperial city to include a lion in its coat of arms. The message was clear: Überlingen stands firm and remains loyal to the emperor.

The first battle of the Peasants' War was a disaster for the rebels. When the imperial army encountered the peasants west of Leipheim on April 4, 1525, they fled almost without putting up a fight. During their attempted escape, thousands were killed or drowned in the Danube River. Days later, the survivors were still occupied with burying their dead.    

Hans Dorn, the commander of the princely alliance, reported to the city of Esslingen on April 7, "I would like to inform you that on Tuesday we stabbed about 500 and drowned about 400 in the Danube. And on Friday, the peasants loaded the dead onto carts and took them to a field near Leipheim, where a pit had been dug by the road, and all the dead were buried in it."

In 1994, 26 of the victims of the Battle of Leipheim were discovered,
and their remains were recovered.

Peasant? Brush drawing, Wittenberg, 1540-1550

This drawing is based on a template by Lucas Cranach the Elder. The exact reproduction of the facial features suggests that a person was portrayed, and it is probably a peasant. A rarity, as peasants were not usually depicted so realistically.

    

Graphic by Hubert Hoffmann, Sassbach, 1990.

In 1990, citizens' initiatives used the poster to commemorate their successful protest against the planned nuclear power plant in Wyhl. The central figure comes from a satirical text from 1522, but the original word "Freyheit (freedom)" on the banner was changed to "mir lehre uns z'wehre (we learn to defend ourselves)". The figure with the new slogan places the citizens' initiative in the tradition of the rebels of 1525.

        

No upheaval in the restroom ... advises Götz von Berlichingen.

Was that supposed to be funny? I didn't get the joke.
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The Superfluous Canton

Red Baron had heard about the Vorarlbergers' desire to join Switzerland after World War I, but had not yet read or heard anything specific about it.

Then I came across a lecture by Professor Alois Niederstätter on the topic "Why the Vorarlbergers wanted to become Swiss in 1919 – and why the canton of 'Übrig' never came to be."

Click to enlarge (©Tschubby/Wikipedia)

Where is Vorarlberg? According to the dictionary, this western province of Austria lies vor dem (in front of the) Arlberg, a barrier between Vorarlberg and the rest of Austria.

Vorarlberg has a 321 km long border, 110 km of which is shared with the German state of Bavaria, 142 km with the Swiss cantons of St. Gallen, Graubünden, and the Principality of Liechtenstein, but only 69 km with the Austrian state of Tyrol.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Vorarlberg was accessible from the rest of Austria in the east via three passes that were only partially passable all year round, namely the Arlberg, the Hochtannberg, and the Bielerhöhe in the Silvretta.

In contrast, Austria's western province is open to the west and north, i.e., easily accessible from Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and Germany. A trip from Bregenz to Vienna by train took eight hours at that time.

So it was only natural that after the Danube Monarchy was reduced to a German remnant of Austria after World War I, there were efforts in Vorarlberg to join the Swiss Confederation.

It also made sense linguistically, because unlike the rest of Austria, the people of Vorarlberg do not speak Bavarian dialects, but Alemannic dialects, which are related to those spoken in German-speaking Switzerland, southern Baden, and Alsace.

The Austro-Hungarian Emperor Karl in uniform
and Empress Zitta, née Bourbon-Parma, visited Vorarlberg in 1917.

As early as 1918, already before the end of World War I, a movement had formed among the population that advocated Vorarlberg's orientation away from Austria and toward Switzerland. The uncertain future of German Austria after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, economic hardship, and a feeling of neglect by the government in Vienna were arguments in favor of joining the Swiss Confederation. This met with calls for the self-determination of the peoples of Europe, which President Wilson had proclaimed.

An "Advertising Committee" met with great interest among the Vorarlberg parties and endeavored to push ahead with the political implementation of the Anschluss (annexation). 

"Advertising" even in the French-speaking part of Switzerland (©Wikipedia)

The Committee chairman, Ferdinand Riedmann, was firmly committed to the idea of economic and political union with Switzerland to overcome Vorarlberg's economic isolation. He wrote the following poem:

Hör uns Helvetia Söhne, die dir so nah Hilf uns befreien! Wir sind von gleichem Blut, Schützen der Freiheit Gut, Streben mit Mannesmut, Schweizer zu sein. Schirm uns Helvetia, So oft Gefahr da Sei unser Hort! Wenn unsres Blutes Drang Sprenget der Knechtschaft Zwang. Sprich dann beim Glockenklang, Frei uns das Wort. Führ' unser Heimatland Mutter mit sicherer Hand Aus aller Not! Mutter dir schwören wir, Bleiben als Söhne dir Dankbar und für und für Treu bis zum Tod. Lodert ihr Feuer heut ' Die ihr den Schwur erneut, Schweizer zu sein. Bringet der Welt die Kund ', Dass unser Schweizer-Bund Reichet in dieser Stund ' Über den Rhein.

Hear us, Helvetia Sons who are so close to you Help us to be free! We are of the same blood, Protectors of freedom Striving with courage To be Swiss. Protect us, Helvetia, Whenever danger arises Be our refuge! When the urge of our blood Breaks the bonds of servitude. Then speak to us, at the sound of bells, The free word. Lead our homeland Mother, with a steady hand Out of all distress! Mother, we swear to you, We will remain your sons Grateful and forever Loyal until death. Let your fires blaze today You who renew your oath To be Swiss. Bring the world the news That our Swiss Confederation Reaches at this hour Across the Rhine.

Initially, on November 3, 1918, all parties organized in Vorarlberg declared the independence of the region from Tyrol in a joint statement: "The Republic of Vorarlberg is a separate, independent country within the framework of the German-Austrian state." Vorarlberg remains the only Austrian state that describes itself as an independent state in its constitution.

After the end of the war, things moved quickly. On February 28, 1919, Vorarlberg introduced universal suffrage for men and women, and by March, the first state constitution had been drafted and the first state elections were held on April 27, 1919. The conservative-federalist Christian Social Party, which at that time was also secessionist in Vorarlberg, won over 63% of the votes and 22 of the 30 seats in the state parliament.

With foresight, the people of Vorarlberg had modeled their constitution on the Swiss cantonal constitutions with their direct democracy. This was a signal, "We are open to Switzerland. The Swiss are our Alemannic relatives. In contrast, Vienna is ruled by a Jewish state, from which we want to separate under all circumstances."

This set alarm bells ringing in Vienna. There was already talk of Switzerland's 23rd canton.

Der Landeshauptmann Vorderösterreichs Dr. Otto Ender

One driving force behind the Anschluss was Otto Ender, who, as governor, led a delegation to Bern but was not received there. Switzerland initially demanded a referendum.

The text of the referendum read: Do the people of Vorarlberg wish that the Provincial Council inform the Swiss Federal Council of the intention of the people of Vorarlberg to join the Swiss Confederation and enter into negotiations with the Federal Council?

On May 19, 1919, 81%* of the Vorarlberg population voted in favor of accession negotiations with Switzerland.
*There were also separatist movements in Tyrol. There, 90% of the population voted in favor of joining the German Reich.

Meanwhile, the Swiss Federal Council discussed the significance of Vorarlberg's annexation. They did not want to upset the carefully balanced relationship between languages and religions in Switzerland by adding another canton with German-speaking Catholics. Hadn't Vorarlberg been bled dry by the war? Vorarlberg may be better off as an independent state. As a result, the desire for annexation among the people of Vorarlberg did not gain majority support in Switzerland. Soon, the word "Kanton Übrig" (Superfluous Canton) began to circulate.

The Schwabenkapitel, an influential group in Vorarlberg, advocating den Anschluss an Schwaben (annexation to Swabia), i.e., Germany, had used the term "Kanton Übrig" for the first time in a polemical pamphlet.

Ultimately, however, all those involved had failed to take the Allies into account. On June 1, 1919, they decided in the Treaty of Saint-Germain that Vorarlberg would remain part of Austria.

The Treaty of Saint-Germain imposed significant losses of German-speaking territories: The area in black was claimed by Austria. Red is the final state border fixed in the Treaty. N.B. South Tyrol and the region around Trieste were lost to Italy, and the Sudetenland to the Czech Republic.

After World War II in 1945, the same scenario arose like a specter: Switzerland as a role model for the people of Vorarlberg.

This time, Vienna hastily arranged for Vorarlberg's Anschluss to the eastern part of Austria through railway and road tunnels. Motorists no longer have to struggle along narrow mountain passes, and the journey by train between Bregenz and Vienna now takes only 6 1/2 hours.

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